Nursing Elites

1. The process of ________ is used to increase the probability that a behavior will occur.

• A. operant conditioning
• B. reinforcement
• C. classical conditioning
• D. punishment

Correct answer: B

Rationale: The correct answer is reinforcement. Reinforcement involves providing a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Operant conditioning (Choice A) refers to learning through consequences for behavior, which includes reinforcement and punishment. Classical conditioning (Choice C) involves forming associations between stimuli and involuntary responses. Punishment (Choice D) involves providing a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. In this context, the question specifically asks about a process that increases the probability of a behavior occurring, aligning with the concept of reinforcement.

2. Cross-cultural research on stress demonstrates that ________.

• A. Depression is a common response to life challenges in all countries studied.
• B. Stress rarely leads to any evidence of illness in non-Western cultures.
• C. Responses to stress vary cross-culturally.
• D. Culture-specific reactions are not seen to respond to alterations in the environment.

Correct answer: C

Rationale: Cross-cultural research on stress demonstrates that responses to stress vary cross-culturally. Choice A is incorrect because depression being a common response in all countries studied is not supported by cross-cultural research findings. Choice B is incorrect as it generalizes that stress rarely leads to illness in non-Western cultures, which is not universally true. Choice D is incorrect as culture-specific reactions can indeed respond to alterations in the environment, as observed in various cross-cultural studies.

3. Mental disorders are almost always _______, meaning they are influenced by multiple genes.

• A. environmental
• B. chemical circuits
• C. polygenic
• D. probabilistic

Correct answer: C

Rationale: The correct answer is C: 'polygenic.' Mental disorders are polygenic, which means they are influenced by multiple genes. This term specifically refers to conditions or traits that are caused by more than one gene. Choice A, 'environmental,' is incorrect as it doesn't directly refer to the genetic influence on mental disorders. Choice B, 'chemical circuits,' is incorrect as it is too specific and not a common term used to describe the genetic basis of mental disorders. Choice D, 'probabilistic,' is incorrect as it relates more to the likelihood or chance of something happening rather than the genetic influence on mental disorders.

4. Which of the following did Freud believe played a causal role in the development of most forms of psychopathology?

• A. Anxiety
• B. Depression
• C. Unresolved conflicts between the ego and the superego
• D. Fixation in the oral stage

Correct answer: A

Rationale: Freud believed that anxiety was a primary causal factor in the development of most forms of psychopathology. Anxiety, according to Freud, arises from conflicts within the mind, particularly conflicts between the id, ego, and superego. This unresolved conflict can lead to various psychological issues. While depression can be a symptom of psychopathology, Freud emphasized anxiety as a more foundational element. Unresolved conflicts between the ego and the superego are related to Freud's structural model of the mind but are not the primary causal factor in psychopathology. Fixation in the oral stage is a concept from Freud's psychosexual stages of development and is not directly linked to the causal role in the development of most forms of psychopathology.

5. When examining heredity, mental disorders are almost always ________.

• A. influenced by one particular gene.
• B. influenced by multiple genes.
• C. influenced by recessive genes.
• D. not influenced by genes.

Correct answer: B

Rationale: When examining heredity and mental disorders, it is important to note that these conditions are influenced by multiple genes working together. Mental disorders are complex traits that arise from the interplay of various genetic and environmental factors. Therefore, choice B, 'influenced by multiple genes,' is the correct answer. Choice A, 'influenced by one particular gene,' is incorrect because mental disorders typically do not result from the action of a single gene. Choice C, 'influenced by recessive genes,' is incorrect as it oversimplifies the genetic basis of mental disorders. Choice D, 'not influenced by genes,' is also incorrect as genes play a significant role in the development of mental disorders.

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